The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America

Ivan Ilyin was a Russian philosopher born in 1883 in Moscow. He died in exile in 1954 in Zillikon, Switzerland. His work centered on issues regarding Russia’s developing identity, drawing from philosophy, religion, and political thought. Ilyin opposed the Bolshevik Revolution, which led to his exile to Berlin in 1922. During his time in Germany, his writings opposed communism and promoted a Russian nationalism powered by Orthodox Christianity. As Snyder comments in The Road to Unfreedom, Ilyin advocated for a mystical Russian national spirit, headed by a redeemer figure, advancing the idea that Russia had to follow its divine path and maintain its separation from impure elements, such as Bolshevism and Western thought.

Snyder traces Ilyin’s influence on the politics of Vladimir Putin, Russia’s president. He argues that Ilyin’s writings on Russia’s path have been used in recent times to advance what Snyder calls a politics of eternity—the idea that a nation exists eternally, in an unchanged state, led through an autocratic system, opposed to democratic principles. According to Snyder, Ilyin’s influence is part of a broader strategy by the Russian state to undermine Western liberal democracies by promoting political cynicism and division, thereby advancing the concept of the politics of eternity, which distracts from failures of governance by focusing on external enemies and historical grievances.

Vladimir Putin is the president of Russia. He first became president in 1999, succeeding the previous president, Boris Yeltsin. Putin was born in 1952 in Leningrad (present-day St. Petersburg). He trained and worked in the KGB (The Committee for State Security), which shaped his governing style. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Putin was presented as a figure of stability who could help the country achieve economic prosperity and democratic institutions. He has served as president since 1999, with the exception of one mandate, from 2008 to 2012, when his ally, Dmitry Medvedev, took the role of president, while Putin served as prime minister. Putin’s leadership is marked by suppression of any opposing figures, repression of internal dissent, a focus on nationalist rhetoric, control over the press and media, and increasingly aggressive military incursions, such as in Chechenia, Georgia, Syria, and Ukraine.

In The Road to Unfreedom, Snyder argues that Putin’s leadership is central to Russia’s anti-Western campaigns, disinformation tactics, and aggression on the geopolitical stage. Snyder portrays Putin as an architect of the politics of eternity, a framework that diverts public attention from Russia’s internal problems and failures by perpetuating a state of war or conflict, often using misinformation. Snyder contends that this strategy is evident in Putin’s actions in Ukraine, where Putin has exploited historical narratives and ethnic tensions to justify Russian intervention, aiming to weaken Ukrainian sovereignty and stall its integration with the West.

Aleksandr Dugin is a Russian philosopher and political theorist, whom the media often refer to as “Putin’s Rasputin” due to Dugin’s perceived influence on Russian geopolitics, though the actual extent of his direct impact on Putin and Kremlin policy is debated. Dugin was born in 1962. He is known for his advocacy of Eurasianism—an ideology that promotes an alliance of countries in the Eurasia geographical area, albeit an alliance under Russian dominance. This ideology pretends to counter the EU’s politics of integration. Dugin’s writings blend elements of ethno-nationalism, Russian mysticism, and a rejection of liberal values, drawing on a range of philosophical sources from traditionalism to geopolitical theory.

Dugin’s vision posits Russia as the leader of a new geopolitical bloc that opposes what he sees as the decadent and morally corrupt West. His influential 1997 book, The Foundations of Geopolitics, has been praised in Russia as foundational for the establishment of military and foreign policy strategy. Dugin advocates for Russian expansion through military intervention in Europe, envisioning a Russia-centered alliance encompassing Europe and Asia that would rival Western powers. His work is often cited as one of the main sources for the ideology that supports Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.

In The Road to Unfreedom, Snyder examines Dugin’s ideology as part of the broader narrative of Russia’s turn away from liberal democracy toward authoritarianism. Snyder discusses how Dugin’s theories have been used to justify Russian expansionist actions and the Kremlin’s efforts to undermine Western democratic institutions. By promoting a worldview that pits Russia against a hostile West, Dugin’s ideas help frame international conflicts as existential battles that justify authoritarian governance at home and aggressive actions abroad.

In 2022, Dugin’s daughter, Darya Dugina, a popular far-right figure, active supporter of Vladimir Putin, and promoter of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, was assassinated while driving the car that her father was thought to be in. The assassination has not been claimed by any group or individual.

Viktor Yanukovych was the elected president of Ukraine from 2010 until his ousting in 2014. Born in 1950 in Yenakiyeve, Ukraine, Yanukovych joined the Party of Regions, which was supported by Russia. His presidency was marked by controversy, including allegations of corruption, electoral fraud, and an increasingly autocratic governance style. Yanukovych’s pro-Russian stance and his postponement of Ukraine’s agreement with the EU in 2013 triggered the Maidan protests. Ukrainian citizens saw his decisions as betrayal of the democratic reforms that the civil society was invested in. Yanukovych chose to strengthen ties with Russia, eventually fleeing Kyiv to Russia when the Maidan protests continued. Yanukovych’s presidency also triggered Russia’s occupation of Crimea and the subsequent military intervention in Eastern and Southern Ukraine.

In Snyder’s The Road to Unfreedom, Yanukovych’s actions and their repercussions are used as examples to illustrate a broader narrative of Russian influence in Eastern Europe and the systemic corruption that undermines young democracies. Snyder explores how Yanukovych, supported by Russian advisers and resources, including the American political advisor Paul Manafort, used his position to manipulate political outcomes and supress opposition, although in the end he was unsuccessful. Yanukovych’s case exemplifies the challenges post-Soviet states face in transitioning from oligarchic control to democratic governance.

Lev Gumilev (1912-1992) was a Soviet and Russian historian and proponent of Eurasianism. He was the son of the famous Russian poets Nikolai Gumilev and Anna Akhmatova, which placed him at the center of Russian intellectual life. However, his life and career were curtailed by the Soviet Union’s repressive politics, so he was repeatedly sent to imprisonment camps under Stalin’s regime, spending almost 20 years in different Soviet prisons. After release, Gumilev developed his theory of ethnogenesis, which posits that ethnic groups arise from interactions with specific geographical environments over time, undergoing cycles of passionarity (the force that defines a nation’s vigour and propensity for cultural and territorial expansion).

Gumilev’s theories gained significant traction in the post-Soviet period, especially among those looking for a scientific and historical basis for Russian nationalism. His concept of Eurasianism suggests that Russia’s destiny is uniquely tied to the Eurasian steppe, distinct from European or Asian paths. This perspective posits Russia as a central power in a broader Eurasian supercontinent, which opposes the Western alliance of democratic states. His views provided the intellectual foundation for emerging geopolitical strategies in Russia during the 1990s and beyond, influencing thinkers and policymakers who saw Russia’s future at the centre of the Eurasian bloc.

In The Road to Unfreedom, Snyder analyzes Lev Gumilev’s influence in the discussion of contemporary Russian Eurasianism and its impact on the region’s contemporary geopolitics. Snyder explores how Russian nationalists and political elites, including Vladimir Putin, have utilized Gumilev’s theories to justify an imperial vision for Russia. This vision challenges the liberal democratic order and the expansion of the EU and NATO.